The Impact of Plastic Surgery Volume on Inpatient Burn Outcomes.

BACKGROUND: Acute burn care involves multiple types of physicians. Plastic surgery offers the full spectrum of acute burn care and reconstructive surgery. The authors hypothesize that access to plastic surgery will be associated with improved inpatient outcomes in the treatment of acute burns. METHODS: Acute burn encounters with known percentage total body surface area were extracted from the National Inpatient Sample from 2012 to 2014 based on International Classification of Diseases, Ninth Edition, codes. Plastic surgery volume per facility was determined based on procedure codes for flaps, breast reconstruction, and complex hand reconstruction. Outcomes included odds of receiving a flap, patient safety indicators, and mortality. Regression models included the following variables: age, percentage total body surface area, gender, inhalation injury, comorbidities, hospital size, and urban/teaching status of hospital. RESULTS: The weighted sample included 99,510 burn admissions with a mean percentage total body surface area of 15.5 percent. The weighted median plastic surgery volume by facility was 245 cases per year. Compared with the lowest quartile, the upper three quartiles of plastic surgery volume were associated with increased likelihood of undergoing flap procedures (p < 0.03). The top quartile of plastic surgery volume was also associated with decreased odds of patient safety indicator events (p < 0.001). Plastic surgery facility volume was not significantly associated with a difference in the likelihood of inpatient death. CONCLUSIONS: Burn encounters treated at high-volume plastic surgery facilities were more likely to undergo flap operations. High-volume plastic surgery centers were also associated with a lower likelihood of inpatient complications. Therefore, where feasible, acute burn patients should be triaged to high-volume centers. CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Therapeutic, III.

Full-Thickness Chemical Burn From Trifluoroacetic Acid: A Case Report and Review of the Literature.

Trifluoroacetic acid (TFA) burns are an ill-defined entity due to a lack of reported sizable burns from this chemical. In this case report of the largest reported burn from TFA, we demonstrate that TFA causes extensive, progressive full-thickness tissue injury that may initially appear superficial. Trifluoroacetic acid does not seem to involve the systemic toxicities that result from hydrofluoric acid burns, and there is no role for calcium gluconate in acute management based on this case. Operative intervention should be staged because wound beds may initially seem healthy yet demonstrate continued necrosis.

Nipple Reconstruction: Risk Factors and Complications after 189 Procedures.

BACKGROUND: A multitude of different approaches have been proposed for achieving optimal aesthetic results after nipple reconstruction. In contrast, however, only a few studies focus on the morbidity associated with this procedure, particularly after implant-based breast reconstruction. METHODS: Using a cross-sectional study design all patients who underwent implant-based breast reconstruction with subsequent nipple reconstruction between 2000 and 2010 at Stanford University Medical Center were identified. The aim of the study was to analyze the impact of the following parameters on the occurrence of postoperative complications: age, final implant volume, time interval from placement of final implant to nipple reconstruction, and history of radiotherapy. RESULTS: A total of 139 patients with a mean age of 47.5 years (range, 29 to 75 years) underwent 189 nipple reconstructions. The overall complication rate was 13.2 percent (N = 25 nipple reconstructions). No association was observed between age (p = 0.43) or implant volume (p = 0.47) and the occurrence of complications. A trend towards higher complication rates in patients in whom the time interval between final implant placement and nipple reconstruction was greater than 8.5 months was seen (p = 0.07). Radiotherapy was the only parameter that was associated with a statistically significant increase in postoperative complication rate (51.7 percent vs. 6.25 percent; p < 0.00001). CONCLUSION: While nipple reconstruction is a safe procedure after implant-based breast reconstruction in patients without a history of radiotherapy, the presence of an irradiated field converts it to a high-risk one with a significant increase in postoperative complication rate. Patients with a history of radiotherapy should be informed about their risk profile and as a result may choose autologous reconstruction instead. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: IV.

Nipple reconstruction after implant-based breast reconstruction: a "matched-pair" outcome analysis focusing on the effects of radiotherapy.

BACKGROUND: The major focus of research when addressing nipple reconstruction has been on developing new techniques to provide for long-lasting nipple projection. Rarely, has the outcome of nipple reconstruction as it relates to postoperative morbidity, particularly after implant-based breast reconstruction, been analyzed. METHODS: A "matched-pair" study was designed to specifically answer the question whether a history of radiotherapy predisposes to a higher complication rate after nipple reconstruction in patients after implant-based breast reconstruction. Only patients with a history of unilateral radiotherapy who underwent bilateral mastectomy and implant-based breast reconstruction followed by bilateral nipple reconstruction were included in the study. RESULTS: A total of 17 patients (i.e. 34 nipple reconstructions) were identified who met inclusion criteria. The mean age of the study population was 43.5 years (range, 23-69). Complications were seen after a total of 8 nipple reconstructions (23.5 percent). Of these, 7 complications were seen on the irradiated side (41.2 percent) (p = 0.03). CONCLUSION: While nipple reconstruction is a safe procedure after implant-based breast reconstruction in patients without a history of radiotherapy the presence of an irradiated field converts it to a procedure with a significant increase in postoperative complication rate.

The foreskin advancement flap: an alternative technique for reconstruction of penile burns.

Penile burns are devastating injuries and are frequently associated with significant functional and psychological sequelae. The goals of penile reconstruction after burn injury include: 1) skin coverage, 2) preservation of penile length, sensation and erectile function, 3) esthetic integrity, and 4) permissive for penile growth in the pediatric patient. A multitude of different techniques have been proposed, including skin grafts, local, regional, and free flaps, each of which fail to address all goals of reconstruction. We introduce the foreskin advancement flap that, when available, successfully addresses these key challenges and as such provides for an ideal reconstruction.

Microsurgical reconstruction of the burned hand.

Although most thermal injuries to the hand can be successfully managed with excision and grafting, deeper injuries may require microsurgical techniques to provide stable, durable coverage and the optimal functional result. In delayed reconstruction, thin pliable flaps can be used to resurface the hand or allow for contracture releases. Proper patient and procedure selection are critical to the success of microsurgical reconstruction.

The timing of microsurgical reconstruction in lower extremity trauma.

The timing of post traumatic microsurgical lower extremity reconstruction was defined by Godina in 1986, with recommendations for flap coverage of Gustillo grade IIIb/c fractures within 72 hours of injury. Godina's study showed the highest risk of infection and flap loss in the delayed period (72 hours-90 days). Subsequent authors have also cited lower rates of flap loss and infection when repair was performed "early". However, the definition of "early" remains ambiguous. We hypothesized that definitive debridement with optimal dressing care, meticulous microsurgical treatment planning, and vessel anastomoses outside of the zone of injury would allow for delayed reconstruction with high success rates. A retrospective review of 14 lower extremity reconstructions with free flaps was undertaken over a 4-year period. All patients underwent reconstruction in the delayed (>72 hours) period. There were no flap losses and one case of late osteomyelitis. We conclude that lower extremity reconstruction can be performed safely and effectively in the "delayed" period to allow for wound debridement, stabilization of other injuries, and transfer to a microsurgical facility.

Free latissimus dorsi flap used in treatment of cerebral aspergillosis: a case report and review of the literature.

Cerebral aspergillosis infection is a rare disease in children that carries extremely high morbidity and mortality. Although occurring most commonly in the immunosuppressed patient, cerebral aspergillosis infection has been reported after trauma or neurosurgical procedures. Amphotericin B is the main medical therapy for cerebral aspergillosis. However, surgical treatment is often required for cases of abscess or granuloma formation. Despite aggressive antifungal treatment and surgical intervention, aspergillosis of the central nervous system is often fatal. We present a case report in which a free latissimus dorsi muscle flap was used in conjunction with antifungal medication and surgical debridement to treat intracranial and epidural aspergillosis in a young male following complex craniofacial trauma.

Early experience with computed tomographic angiography in microsurgical reconstruction.

Preoperative angiography is frequently used in the planning of microsurgical reconstruction. However, several potentially devastating complications can result from angiography, including arterial occlusion and pseudoaneurysm. Computed tomographic angiography is a relatively new technique that can provide detailed information about vascular anatomy as well as soft and bony tissue without the risks of traditional angiography. In addition, three-dimensional image reconstruction uniquely demonstrates anatomical relationships among blood vessels, bones, and soft tissue. Fourteen computed tomographic angiograms were obtained in 10 patients undergoing microsurgical reconstruction of the head and neck, lower extremity, or upper extremity. The average patient age was 46.9 years (range, 22 to 67 years). Charges related to the computed tomographic procedure were compared with those of conventional preoperative imaging for microsurgical repair. At our institution, the average computed tomographic angiogram charge was 1140 US dollars, whereas the average charge for traditional arteriography was 3900 US dollars. When compared with intraoperative evaluation, computed tomographic angiograms demonstrated clinically relevant surgical anatomy. No complications were noted for the radiographic procedure or after free flap reconstruction. Computed tomographic angiography provides high-resolution, three-dimensional arterial, venous, and soft-tissue imaging without the risks of traditional angiogram and at a lower cost.

Surgical treatment of breast cancer in previously augmented patients.

The incidence of breast cancer is increasing each year. Concomitantly, cosmetic breast augmentation has become the second most often performed cosmetic surgical procedure. As the augmented patient population ages, an increasing number of breast cancer cases among previously augmented women can be anticipated. The surgical treatment of these patients is controversial, with several questions remaining unanswered. Is breast conservation therapy feasible in this patient population and can these patients retain their implants? A retrospective review of all breast cancer patients with a history of previous augmentation mammaplasty who were treated at the Revlon/UCLA Breast Center between 1991 and 2001 was performed. During the study period, 58 patients were treated. Thirty patients (52 percent) were treated with a modified radical mastectomy with implant removal. Twenty-eight patients (48 percent) underwent breast conservation therapy, which consisted of lumpectomy, axillary lymph node dissection, and radiotherapy. Twenty-two of the patients who underwent breast conservation therapy initially retained their implants. Eleven of those 22 patients (50 percent) ultimately required completion mastectomies with implant removal because of implant complications (two patients), local recurrences (five patients), or the inability to obtain negative margins (four patients). Nine additional patients experienced complications resulting from their implants, including contracture, erosion, pain, and rupture. The data illustrate that breast conservation therapy with maintenance of the implant is not ideal for the majority of augmented patients. Breast conservation therapy with explantation and mastopexy might be appropriate for rare patients with large volumes of native breast tissue. Mastectomy with immediate reconstruction might be a more suitable choice for these patients.

The dorsal scapular island flap: an alternative for head, neck, and chest reconstruction.

The back has become an increasingly popular donor site for flaps because it can provide thin, pliable tissue, with minimal bulk, and the scar can be easily hidden under clothing. The authors performed a cadaveric and clinical study to evaluate the anatomy of the dorsal scapular vessels and their vascular contribution to the skin, fascia, and muscles of the back. On the basis of anatomical studies in 28 cadavers and clinical experience with 32 cases, it was concluded that the dorsal scapular vessels provide a reliable blood supply to the skin of the medial back, making it a versatile flap to use as an island flap. A flap raised on the dorsal scapular vessels can be harvested with a long pedicle and can be rotated to reach as far as the anterior regions of the head, neck, and chest wall. Delaying and expanding the flap may help to facilitate venous drainage. The authors recommend the use of this versatile island pedicle flap as an alternative to microvascular free-tissue transfer for the reconstruction of defects in the head, neck, and anterior chest.

Use of the latissimus dorsi flap for recontouring and augmentation after TRAM flap breast reconstruction.

The transverse rectus abdominis musculocutaneous (TRAM) flap is the most commonly used autogenous tissue flap for breast reconstruction. However, it may not provide sufficient volume in all patients to match the contralateral breast. Insufficient abdominal bulk or bilateral reconstructions limit the amount of tissue available for the TRAM flap. Partial flap loss from fat necrosis or radiation injury may result in contour deformities of the reconstructed breast. Additional soft-tissue augmentation and contouring may be necessary to produce adequate volume, contour, and symmetry. The authors present 7 patients who underwent latissimus dorsi flap reconstruction to correct volume and contour abnormalities that developed after TRAM flap breast reconstruction. Preservation of the serratus branch of the thoracodorsal vessels allows this flap to be used even after free TRAM flap reconstruction.